قائمة أقدم الجامعات في العالم

من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة
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خريطة جامعات العصور الوسطى

يتضمن هذا المقال قائمة بأقدم جامعات العالم التي لا زالت عاملة إلى الآن. يجب أن يحقق المعهد التعليمي التعريف التقليدي للجامعة المتعارف عليه في فترة إنشائها حتى يدرج في هذه القائمة[1]. يجب أن تكون تأسست قبل عام 1500 في أوروبا أو أن تكون مستمدة من النموذج الأوروبي في القرون الوسطى في منطقة ما.

أشتقت كلمة university من لاتينية: universitas magistrorum et scholarium وتعني "مجتمع المعلمين والعلماء. وقد صاغت هذا المصطلح جامعة بولونيا الإيطالية، التي تعتبر أول جامعة، إذ تأسست عام 1088[2][3]. تعود أصول العديد من جامعات القرون الوسطى إلى المدارس الكاثيدرائية المسيحية أو مدارس الرهبانية التي تعود إلى القرن السادس، وقد عملت هذه المدارس كمدارس لمثات من السنين قبل أو تتحول إلى جامعات في العصور الوسطى[4].

Other institutions of higher learning, like those of ancient Greece, ancient Rome, Byzantium, ancient China, ancient India, the Arab World, are not included in this list due to their cultural, historical and structural dissimilarities from the medieval European university from which the modern university evolved.[5][6][7]

محتويات

أصول العصور الوسطى [عدل]

Crystal Clear app kdict.png مقال تفصيلي :Medieval university

The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars". The term was coined by the Italian University of Bologna, which, with a traditional founding date of 1088, is considered the first university.[2][3] The origin of many medieval universities can be traced to the Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools which appear as early as the 6th century and were run for hundreds of years as such before their formal establishment as university in the high medieval period.[4]

The university as an institution was historically rooted in that medieval society which it in turn influenced and shaped:

The university is a European institution; indeed, it is the European institution par excellence. There are various reasons for this assertion. As a community of teachers and taught, accorded certain rights, such as administrative autonomy and the determination and realization of curricula (courses of study) and of the objectives of research as well as the award of publicly recognized degrees, it is a creation of medieval Europe, which was the Europe of papal Christianity...

No other European institution has spread over the entire world in the way in which the traditional form of the European university has done. The degrees awarded by European universities – the bachelor's degree, the licentiate, the master's degree, and the doctorate – have been adopted in the most diverse societies throughout the world. The four medieval faculties of artes variously called philosophy, letters, arts, arts and sciences, and humanities – law, medicine, and theology have survived and have been supplemented by numerous disciplines, particularly the social sciences and technological studies, but they remain none the less at the heart of universities throughout the world...

Moreover, the university is a European institution because it has, in its social role, performed certain functions for all European societies. It has developed and transmitted scientific and scholarly knowledge and the methods of cultivating that knowledge which has arisen from and formed part of the common European intellectual tradition.[8]

الانتشار الحديث [عدل]

منذ العصور الحديثة المبكرة، انتشرت الجامعات تدريجياً في أنحاء العالم، واستبدلت في نهاية المطاف معاهد التعليم العالي القديمة وأصبحت مؤسسات بارزة للتعليم في كل مكان. لقد حدثت هذه العملية وفق التسلسل الزمني التالي[9]:

  • أوروبا الغربية: منذ القرن الحادي عشر\القرن الثاني عشر الميلادي
  • أوروبا الشرقية: منذ القرن الرابع عشر\القرن الخامس عشر الميلادي
  • الأمريكيتين: منذ القرن السادس عشر الميلادي
  • أستراليا: منذ القرن التاسع عشر الميلادي
  • آسيا وأفريقيا: منذ القرن التاسع عشر\القرن العشرين الميلادي، عدا الفلبين حيث أسست جامعة سانتو توماس وجامعة سان كارلوس في القرنين السابع عشر والقرن السادس عشر الميلاديين على التوالي.

الجامعات التي أنشأت قبل عام 1500 [عدل]

Crystal Clear app kdict.png مقال تفصيلي :قائمة جامعات العصور الوسطى

أقدم الجامعات التي أنشأت قبل الاستعمار الأوروبي للأمريكيتين هي تلك التي تأسست وعملت في أوروبا في العصور الوسطى.

العام الموقع وقت الإنشاء الموقع الحالي اسم الجامعة ملاحظات
1088 Coat of arms of the Papal States الدولة البابوية علم إيطاليا بولونيا، إيطاليا جامعة بولونيا The first university in the sense of a higher-learning, degree-awarding institute, the word university having been coined at its foundation.[10]
1150 Arms of the Kingdom of France (Ancien) المملكة الفرنسية علم فرنسا باريس، فرنسا جامعة باريس It was founded in the mid-12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1170 (or, possibly, as early as 1150). After many changes, including a century of suspension (1793–1896), it ceased to exist as such in 1970 and 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I–XIII) were created from it. The university is often referred to as the Sorbonne or La Sorbonne after the collegiate institution (Collège de Sorbonne) founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon. In fact, the university as such was older and was never completely centered on the Sorbonne. Of the 13 current successor universities, the first 5 have a presence in the historical Sorbonne building, and three include "Sorbonne" in their names.
1167 (1254) Royal Arms of England (1198-1340).svg مملكة إنجلترا علم المملكة المتحدة أوكسفورد، المملكة المتحدة جامعة أوكسفورد "Claimed to be the oldest university in the world, there is no clear date of foundation of Oxford University, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167, when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris."[11] Teaching suspended in 1209 (due to town execution of two scholars) and 1355 (due to the St. Scholastica riot), but was continuous during the English Civil War (1642–1651) - the University was Royalist. All Souls College and University College have repeatedly claimed that they own documents proving that teaching in Oxford started in the year 825, but these documents have never seen the public light (allegedly, John Speed dated his famous 1605 Oxford maps based on these documents). However, it was not until 1254 that Pope Innocent IV granted to Oxford the University charter by papal bull ("Querentes in agro").
1209 (1231) Royal Arms of England (1198-1340).svg مملكة إنجلترا علم المملكة المتحدة كامبردج، المملكة المتحدة جامعة كامبردج Founded by scholars leaving Oxford after a dispute caused by the execution of two scholars in 1209, and royal charter was granted in 1231.[12] The university takes 1209 as its official anniversary.[13]
1218 (وقد يكون التاريخ أقدم من ذلك) Pennant of the Kingdom of León مملكة ليون علم إسبانيا سلامنكا، إسبانيا جامعة سلامنكا It is the oldest university in operation in Spain. Although there are records of the University granting degrees many years before (James Trager's People's Chronology sets its foundation date in 1134), it only received the Royal chart of foundation as "Estudio General" in 1218, making it possibly the fourth or even the third oldest European university in continuous operations. However, it was the first European university to receive the title of "University" as such, granted by king of Castile and León Alfonso X and the Pope in 1254. Having been excluded from the University in 1852 by the Spanish government, the Faculties of Theology and Canon Law became the Pontifical University of Salamanca in 1940.
1222 (probably older) علم إيطاليا بادوا، إيطاليا جامعة بادوا، إيطاليا أسسها عدد من العلماء والأساتذة بعد أن تركوا جامعة بولونيا.
1224 Flag of Naples.svg مدينة نابلس علم إيطاليا نابلس، إيطاليا جامعة نابلس فيدريكو الثاني The first public university,[14] founded by Frederick II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
1229 شعار المملكة الفرنسية) فرنسا في العصور الوسطى علم فرنسا تولوز، فرنسا جامعة تولوز
1240 شعار سيينا جمهورية سيينا علم إيطاليا سيينا، إيطاليا جامعة سيينا Originally called Studium Senese, was founded by Commune of Siena in 1240. In 1321, the studium was able to attract a larger number or pupils due to a mass exodus from the prestigious neighbouring University of Bologna. Closed temporarily in 1808–1815 when Napoleonic forces occupied Tuscany. On November 7, 1990 the university celebrated its 750th anniversary.
1241 Escudo de la Corona de Castilla.svg Kingdom of Castile, Crown of Castile علم إسبانيا بلد الوليد، إسبانيا جامعة بلد الوليد One hypothesis is that its foundation is the result of the transfer of Palencia General Survey between 1208 and 1241 by Alfonso VIII, king of Castile, and Bishop Tello Téllez de Meneses.
1289 Arms of the Kingdom of France (Ancien) Kingdom of France علم فرنسا مونبلييه، France جامعة مونبلييه The university is considerably older than its formal founding date, associated with a bull issued by Pope Nicholas IV in 1289, combining all the long-existing schools into a university.
1290 Coat of arms of the Papal States الدولة الباباوية علم إيطاليا ماشيراتا، إيطاليا University of Macerata[15] The University of Macerata (Italian: Università degli Studi di Macerata) is a university located in Macerata, Marche, Italy. It was founded in 1290 and is organized into 7 faculties.
1290 Armas portugal 1247.png مملكة البرتغال
LSB.png لشبونة		 علم البرتغال قلمرية، البرتغال جامعة قلمرية[15] Begun its existence in Lisbon with the name Studium Generale (Estudo Geral). Scientiae thesaurus mirabilis, the royal charter announcing the institution of the University, was dated 1 March of that year, although efforts had been made at least since 1288 to create this first university in Portugal. The papal confirmation was also given in 1290 (on 9 August of that year), during the papacy of Pope Nicholas IV.
1293 Pennant of the Crown of Castile Crown of Castile علم إسبانيا مدريد، إسبانيا Complutense University of Madrid The Complutense University of Madrid was founded by King Sancho IV of Castile as Studium Generale in 1293 in Alcalá de Henares. It was granted Papal Bull in 1499, and quickly gained international fame thanks to the patronage of Cardinal Cisneros and the production of the Complutensian Polyglot Bible in 1517, which is the basis for most of the current translations. The University moved to Madrid in 1836 by Royal Decree. The Moyano Law of 1857 established Complutense as the sole university in Spain authorized to confer the title of Doctor on any scholar. This law remained in effect until 1954.
1303 Coat of arms of the Papal States Papal States علم إيطاليا روما، إيطاليا La Sapienza University of Rome Founded by Pope Boniface VIII, but became a state university in 1935. According to the Catholic Encyclopaedia, the university "remained closed during the entire pontificate of Clement VII".
1308 علم إيطاليا بيروجيا، إيطاليا جامعة بيروجيا Attested by the Bull of Pope Clement V.
1321 شعار جمهورية فلورنسا جمهورية فلورنسا علم إيطاليا فلورنسا، إيطاليا جامعة فلورنسا The University of Florence evolved from the Studium Generale, which was established by the Florentine Republic in 1321. The Studium was recognized by Pope Clement VI in 1349.
1336 Coat of arms of the Papal States Papal States علم إيطاليا كاميرينو، إيطاليا جامعة كاميرينو The great literate and jurist Cino from Pistoia, living in Marche in the years 1319-21, and in Camerino in the spring of 1321, remembers the territory blooming with juridical schools. Camerino has been a center of learning since no later than 1200, offering degrees in civil law, canonical law, medicine, and literary studies. Gregory XI took the decision upon the request of Gentile III da Varano with the papal edict of 29 January 1377, directed to the commune and to the people, authorizing Camerino to confer (after appropriate examination) bachelor and doctoral degrees with apostolic authority.
1343 Coat of arms of the Republic of Pisa Republic of Pisa علم إيطاليا بيزا، إيطاليا جامعة بيزا It was formally founded on September 3, 1343 by an edict of Pope Clement VI, although there had been lectures on law in Pisa since the 11th century. Nowadays is one of the most important universities in Italy.
1348 شعار مملكة بوهيميا مملكة بوهيميا

شعار الإمبراطورية الرومانية الإمبراطورية الرومانية المقدسة

 علم جمهورية التشيك براغ، جمهورية التشيك Charles University of Prague Three of four faculties closed in 1419, joined with Jesuit university and renamed Charles-Ferdinand University in 1652, split into German and Czech part in 1882, Czech branch closed during Nazi occupation (1939–1945), German branch closed in 1945.[16]
1361 House of ViscontiHouse of Visconti علم إيطاليا بافيا، إيطاليا جامعة بافيا Closed for short periods during the Italian Wars, Napoleonic wars, and Revolutions of 1848.
1364 شعار بولندا مملكة بولندا علم بولندا كراكوف، Poland Jagiellonian University Founded by Casimir the Great. Development stalled after his death, re-established from 1400 onwards.

Closed during the German occupation of Poland 1939-1945.Re-opened after the occupation.
1365 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم النمسا فيينا، النمسا جامعة فيينا Modelled on the University of Paris.
1367 قالب:معطيات Kingdom of Hungary علم المجر Pécs, Hungary University of Pécs
1386 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم ألمانيا Heidelberg, Germany Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg Founded by Rupert I, Elector Palatine. The oldest in Germany.
1391 House of EsteHouse of Este علم إيطاليا Ferrara, إيطاليا University of Ferrara Founded by Marquis Alberto d'Este.
1404 قالب:معطيات Duchy of Savoy علم إيطاليا Turin, إيطاليا University of Turin Founded by the prince "Louis of Piedmont" during the reign of Amadeus VIII.
1409 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم ألمانيا Leipzig, Germany University of Leipzig Founded when German-speaking staff left Prague due to the Jan Hus crisis.
1409 County of Provence علم فرنسا Aix-en-Provence, France University of Aix-en-Provence Founded by the Count of Provence Louis II december 9, 1409.
1413 قالب:معطيات Kingdom of Scotland علم المملكة المتحدة St Andrews, UK University of St Andrews Founded by a Papal Bull
1419 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم ألمانيا Rostock, Germany University of Rostock During the Reformation, "the Catholic university of Rostock closed altogether and the closure was long enough to make the refounded body feel a new institution".[17]
1434 علم مملكة الصقليتان Kingdom of Sicily علم إيطاليا Catania, Italy University of Catania The oldest in Sicily. Founded by Alfonso V of Aragon.
1450[18] Standard of the Crown of Aragon Crown of Aragon علم إسبانيا Barcelona, Spain University of Barcelona Founded by Alfonso V of Aragon as Estudi general de Barcelona after the unification of all university education. For forty-nine years prior to that foundation, however, the city had had a fledgling medical school founded by King Martin of Aragon, and in the 13th century Barcelona already possessed several civil and ecclesiastical schools.
1451 قالب:معطيات Kingdom of Scotland علم المملكة المتحدة Glasgow, UK University of Glasgow Founded by a Papal Bull
1456 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم ألمانيا Greifswald, Germany University of Greifswald Teaching had started by 1436. Founded by initiative of Heinrich Rubenow, Lord Mayor of Greifswald (and first rector), with approval of Pope Callixtus III and Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, under the protection of Wartislaw IX, Duke of Pomerania. Teaching paused temporarily during the Protestant Reformation (1527–39).
1457 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم ألمانيا Freiburg, Germany Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg Temporarily transferred to Constance in 1686–98 and 1713–15.
1460 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم سويسرا Basel, Switzerland University of Basel Founded in 1460 (Schola Basiliensis), the University of Basel is the oldest university in Switzerland. [10]
1472 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم ألمانيا Munich, Germany Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich Founded in Ingolstadt in 1459, transferred to Landshut in 1800, moved to Munich in 1826.
1477 قالب:معطيات Holy Roman Empire علم ألمانيا Tübingen, Germany Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen
1477 قالب:معطيات Kalmar Union علم السويد Uppsala, Sweden Uppsala University Uppsala's bull, which granted the university its corporate rights, was issued by Pope Sixtus IV in 1477, and established a number of provisions. Among the most important of these was that the university was officially given the same freedoms and privileges as the University of Bologna.
1479 قالب:معطيات Kalmar Union علم الدنمارك Copenhagen, Denmark University of Copenhagen
1481 قالب:معطيات Republic of Genoa علم إيطاليا Genoa, Italy University of Genoa Founded in 1481 (Genuense Athenaeum).
1495 قالب:معطيات Kingdom of Scotland علم المملكة المتحدة Aberdeen, UK University of Aberdeen King's College was founded by Papal Bull in 1495 and Marischal College in 1593; they merged in 1860
1495 Kingdom of Galicia Kingdom of Galicia علم إسبانيا Santiago de Compostela, Spain University of Santiago de Compostela The university traces its roots to 1495, when a school was opened in Santiago.[19] In 1504, Pope Julius II approved the foundation of a university in Santiago, and the bull for its creation was granted by Clement VII in 1526.
1499 Standard of the Crown of Aragon Crown of Aragon علم إسبانيا Valencia, Spain University of Valencia

Oldest universities by country or region after 1500 still in operation [عدل]

The majority of European countries had universities by 1500. After 1500, universities began to spread to other countries all over the world:

Europe [عدل]

Latin America and the Caribbean [عدل]

أمريكا الشمالية [عدل]


Crystal Clear app kdict.png طالع أيضًا :First university in the United States


Africa [عدل]

Asia [عدل]

Crystal Clear app kdict.png طالع أيضًا :List of the oldest schools in the Philippines

Australia and Oceania [عدل]

See also [عدل]

المراجع [عدل]

ملاحظات


  1. ^ Hyde, J. K. (1991), "Universities and Cities in Medieval Italy", in Bender, Thomas, The university and the city: from medieval origins to the present, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 13–14, ISBN 978-0-19-506775-0
  2. ↑ أ ب Hunt Janin: "The university in medieval life, 1179–1499", McFarland, 2008, ISBN 0-7864-3462-7, p. 55f.
  3. ↑ أ ب de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. 47–55
  4. ↑ أ ب Riché 1978, pp. 126–7, 282–98
  5. ^ Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8, pp. 35–76 (35):

    No one today would dispute the fact that universities, in the sense in which the term is now generally understood, were a creation of the Middle Ages, appearing for the first time between the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. It is no doubt true that other civilizations, prior to, or wholly alien to, the medieval West, such as the Roman Empire, Byzantium, Islam, or China, were familiar with forms of higher education which a number of historians, for the sake of convenience, have sometimes described as universities.Yet a closer look makes it plain that the institutional reality was altogether different and, no matter what has been said on the subject, there is no real link such as would justify us in associating them with medieval universities in the West. Until there is definite proof to the contrary, these latter must be regarded as the sole source of the model which gradually spread through the whole of Europe and then to the whole world. We are therefore concerned with what is indisputably an original institution, which can only be defined in terms of a historical analysis of its emrgence and its mode of operation in concrete circumstances.

  6. ^ Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", Studia Islamica, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (264):

    Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the Middle Ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.

  7. ^ Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. XIX–XX, see quote below.
  8. ^ Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. XIX–XX
  9. ^ Rüegg, Walter (ed.): Geschichte der Universität in Europa, 3 vols., C.H. Beck, München 1993, ISBN 3-406-36956-1
  10. ^ Nuria Sanz, Sjur Bergan: "The heritage of European universities", 2nd edition, Higher Education Series No. 7, Council of Europe, 2006, ISBN, p.136
  11. ^ A brief history of the University of Oxford, Oxford University
  12. ^ "Early records". A brief history of the university. University of Cambridge. http://www.cam.ac.uk/univ/history/records.html. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  13. ^ "800th anniversary". University of Cambridge. http://www.cam.ac.uk/univ/800/. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
  14. ^ http://www.news.unina.it/dettagli_area.jsp?ID=12275
  15. ↑ أ ب Times Higher Education - QS World University Rankings 2007 - World's oldest universities
  16. ^ History of CU
  17. ^ Quoted from: Chadwick, Owen. The Early Reformation on the Continent. Oxford University Press, 2003. Page 257.
  18. ^ "The University of Barcelona: 599 years of history. The most important dates and events". Universitat de Barcelona. http://www.ub.edu/web/ub/en/universitat/coneix_la_ub/historia/Historia.html?. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
  19. ^ “La Universidad de Santiago cumple 500 años”، 22 مارس 1995. من El Mundo (بspanish).
  20. ^ Note that the Court of Cassation of Belgium ruled 26 November 1846, that this new Catholic University of Louvain founded in Mechlin in 1834 don't have any links with the Old University of Louvain founded in 1425 and abolished in 1797 and can not be regarded as continuing it: "The Catholic University of Louvain can not be regarded as continuing the old University of Louvain", in, Table générale alphabétique et chronologique de la Pasicrisie Belge contenant la jurisprudence du Royaume de 1814 à 1850, Brussels, 1855, p. 585, column 1, alinea 2. See also: Bulletin Usuel des Lois et Arrêtés, 1861, p.166. To see also this rule of the Cour d'Appel of 1844: La Belgique Judiciaire, 28 july 1844 n° 69, p. 1 : "Cour d’Appel de Bruxelles. Deuxième chambre. L'université libre de Louvain ne représente pas légalement l’antique université de cette ville. Attendu que cette université (l’ancienne Université de Louvain), instituée par une bulle papale, de concert avec l'autorité souveraine, formait un corps reconnu dans l'État, ayant différentes attributions, dont plusieurs même lui étaient déléguées par le pouvoir civil; Attendu que ce corps a été supprimé par les lois de la république française; Attendu que l'université existant actuellement à Louvain ne peut être considérée comme continuant celle qui existait en 1457, ces deux établissemens ayant un caractère bien distinct, puisque l'université actuelle, non reconnue comme personne civile, n'est qu'un établissement tout-à-fait privé, résultat de la liberté d'enseignement , en dehors de toute action du pouvoir et sans autorité dans l'État...". (Translation : " Court of Appeal of Brussels. Second Chamber. The Free University of Louvain is not legally representend the old university in that city. Whereas this University (formerly University of Louvain), established by a papal bull, together with the sovereign authority, formed a body recognized by the State, with different functions, many of which even he was delegated by the civil power. And whereas this body was removed by the laws of the French Republic; Whereas the currently existing university in Leuven can not be regarded as continuing that which existed in 1457, these two establishments with a distinct character, since the currently university is not recognized as legal person, and is institution is entirely private, the result of academic freedom, apart from any action without authority and power in the state."
  21. ^ History of Education in Romania
  22. ^ About University of Iaşi
  23. ^ About Cluj-Napoca University
  24. ^ About University of Bucharest
  25. ^ http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/about-istanbul-tech
  26. ^ [1]
  27. ^ [2]
  28. ↑ أ ب Elizalde,Guadalupe, Piedras en el Camino de la UNAM, EDAMEX, 1999 p.49.
  29. ^ [3]
  30. ^ [4]
  31. ^ Brief Description of the University, University of Ghana
  32. ^ Damtew Teferra et al. (2003). African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook. Indiana University Press. ص. 492–499. ISBN 978-0-253-34186-0.
  33. ^ [5]
  34. ^ [6]
  35. ^ http://www.univdhaka.edu/department/law/index.php
  36. ^ Educational institutions were closed in China starting on June 13, 1966 due to the Cultural Revolution. They remained closed for a year, or longer in some cases. See [7]
  37. ^ 『徳川実紀』寛永9年条
  38. ^ 須藤敏夫『近世日本釈奠の研究』（思文閣出版、2001年） ISBN 978-4-7842-1070-1
  39. ^ "http://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/gen03/b03_02_j.html"
  40. ^ 深瀬泰旦著 『天然痘根絶史』 恩文閣出版、2002年9月 ISBN 4-7842-1116-0
  41. ^ “Yangon - From stately city to crumbling symbol of isolation”، Reuters، 27 نوفمبر 2011..
  42. ^ [8]
  43. ^ [9]


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