إدمان المخدرات: الفرق بين النسختين

من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة
[نسخة منشورة][نسخة منشورة]
تم حذف المحتوى تمت إضافة المحتوى
JarBot (نقاش | مساهمات)
سطر 1: سطر 1:
{{معلومات مرض
{{مصدر|تاريخ=فبراير 2016}}
| الاسم = الاعتماد على مادة
{{معلومات مرض}}
| اختصاص = [[علم نفس]]
يعتبر '''إدمان المخدرات''' بشكل واسع على أنه [[علم الأمراض|حالة مرضية]]. يتطور هذا النوع من [[إدمان|الإدمان]] على شكل متكرر من الاستعمال المفرط [[مخدر|للمخدرات]]، مروراً بحالة طلب المخدر، إلى انتكاس الحالة ونقصان القابلية للاستجابة للمنبهات الطبيعية. يصنف [[دليل تشخيصي إحصائي للاضطرابات النفسية|الدليل التشخيصي الإحصائي للاضطرابات النفسية]] الإدمان إلى ثلاثة مراحل:
|اختصاص=[[علم نفس]]}}'''الاعتماد على مادة '''المعروف أيضا باسم '''الاعتماد على المخدرات''' هي حالة تكيفية تنتج من تكرار تعاطي مادة أو <nowiki/>[[عقار (مادة كيميائية)|دواء]]، مما يؤدي إلى أعراض ا<nowiki/>[[أعراض انسحابية|نسحابية]] عند التوقف عن الاستخدام.<ref name="NHM terms-DSM flaw">{{مرجع كتاب|عنوان=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|ناشر=McGraw-Hill Medical|سنة=2009|ISBN=9780071481274|إصدار=2nd|صفحات=364–368|chapter=Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders|اقتباس=The defining feature of addiction is compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences.&nbsp;...<br /></span>Addictive drugs are both rewarding and reinforcing.&nbsp;... Familiar pharmacologic terms such as tolerance, dependence, and sensitization are useful in describing some of the time-dependent processes that underlie addiction.&nbsp;... <br />''Dependence'' is defined as an adaptive state that develops in response to repeated drug administration, and is unmasked during ''withdrawal'', which occurs when drug taking stops. Dependence from long-term drug use may have both a somatic component, manifested by physical symptoms, and an emotional–motivation component, manifested by dysphoria. While physical dependence and withdrawal occur with some drugs of abuse (opiates, ethanol), these phenomena are not useful in the diagnosis of addiction because they do not occur with other drugs of abuse (cocaine, amphetamine) and can occur with many drugs that are not abused (propranolol, clonidine).<br /><br />The official diagnosis of drug addiction by the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (2000), which makes distinctions between drug use, abuse, and substance dependence, is flawed. First, diagnosis of drug use versus abuse can be arbitrary and reflect cultural norms, not medical phenomena. Second, the term substance dependence implies that dependence is the primary pharmacologic phenomenon underlying addiction, which is likely not true, as tolerance, sensitization, and learning and memory also play central roles. It is ironic and unfortunate that the Manual avoids use of the term addiction, which provides the best description of the clinical syndrome.}}</ref><ref name="NIH">{{مرجع ويب
* الانهماك أو الترقب
| مسار = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002490/
* النوبة أو السكر
| عنوان = Substance use disorder
* الانقطاع أو التأثير السلبي.
| موقع = Pubmed Health
توصف هذه المراحل الثلاثة على الترتيب، بالطلب المستمر والانهماك في الحصول على المادة المخدرة، تعاطي جرعة أكبر من اللازم من أجل الوصول لحالة النشوة أو السكر، المعاناة من الآثار السلبية والانقطاع عن نشاطات الحياة العادية.
| ناشر = National Institutes of Health
| مسار أرشيف = https://web.archive.org/web/20140331180947/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002490/
| تاريخ أرشيف = 31 March 2014
| وصلة مكسورة = no
| تاريخ الوصول = 12 September 2014
| اقتباس = Drug dependence means that a person needs a drug to function normally. Abruptly stopping the drug leads to withdrawal symptoms. Drug addiction is the compulsive use of a substance, despite its negative or dangerous effects
}}</ref> بينما ''[[إدمان|الإدمان]]،'' وهو مفهوم خاص من الاعتماد على مواد، يعرف بأنه سلوك <nowiki/>[[سلوك قهري|قهري]] وخارج عن السيطرة، على الرغم من العواقب السلبية. ΔFosB، عامل <nowiki/>[[نسخ (وراثة)|النسخ الجيني]]، من المعروف الآن أنه عنصر حاسم وعامل مشترك في تكوين تقريبا جميع أشكال الإدمان السلوكية والإدمان على المواد،<ref name="Nestler">{{Cite journal|عنوان=Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction|تاريخ=November 2011|journal=Nat. Rev. Neurosci.|issue=11|DOI=10.1038/nrn3111|المجلد=12|صفحات=623–637|PMID=21989194|اقتباس=ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors&nbsp;... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.}}</ref><ref name="ΔFosB reward">{{Cite journal|عنوان=Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms|journal=J. Psychoactive Drugs|issue=1|DOI=10.1080/02791072.2012.662112|سنة=2012|المجلد=44|صفحات=38–55|PMID=22641964|اقتباس=It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance.&nbsp;... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.}}</ref><ref name="Natural and drug addictions">{{Cite journal|عنوان=Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions|تاريخ=December 2011|journal=Neuropharmacology|issue=7|DOI=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010|المجلد=61|صفحات=1109–22|PMID=21459101|الأخير=Olsen CM}}</ref> ولكن ليس الاعتماد.


== عقاقير تسبب الإدمان ==
{{فهرس إدمان}}


في الطبعة الرابعة من ''[[الدليل التشخيصي والإحصائي للاضطرابات النفسية]]'' (''DSM-IV'')، الاعتماد على مادة يتم تعريفه على أنه إدمان للمخدرات، و يمكن تشخيصه دون حدوث متلازمة الانسحاب.<ref>{{مرجع ويب
تتضمن العقاقير التي تسبب الإدمان بعض العقاقير اللاقانونية بالإضافة إلى بعض الأدوية العلاجية التي تصرف ب[[وصفة طبية]]، أو [[أدوية فوق الطاولة]] التي تصرف بدون وصفة طبية. وهذه المواد هي:
| مسار = http://behavenet.com/node/21516
* [[منشط|منشطات]]
| عنوان = Diagnostic criteria for Substance Dependence: DSM IV–TR
** [[أمفيتامين]]
| موقع = BehaveNet
** [[كافايين]]
| مسار أرشيف = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20150612225125/http://behavenet.com/node/21516
** [[كوكايين]]
| تاريخ أرشيف = 12 June 2015
** [[نيكوتين]]
| وصلة مكسورة = no
* [[مهدئات]] أو [[منوم|منومات]]
| تاريخ الوصول = 12 June 2015
** [[كحول]]
}}</ref> الآن يتم وصف الاعتماد على مادة كالتالي: "عندما يستمر الفرد في استخدام الكحول أو المخدرات الأخرى على الرغم من المشاكل المتعلقة باستخدام المادة، قد يمكن تشخيص الحالة بأنها اعتماد على مادة". الاستخدام القهري والمتكرر قد يؤدي إلى حدوث [[تحمل الدواء|تحمل]] لتأثير المادة و<nowiki/>[[أعراض انسحابية|أعراض الانسحاب]] عند انخفاض أو توقف الاستخدام. هذا الموضوع جنبا إلى جنب مع سوء استخدام المواد يعتبرا من اضطرابات تعاطي المواد."<ref>{{مرجع ويب
** [[باربتيورات]]
| مسار = http://behavenet.com/substance-dependence
** [[بنزودايزينات]] Benzodiazepine
| عنوان = Substance Dependence
** [[ميثاكوالون]] Methaqualone
| موقع = BehaveNet
* [[أفيونات]]
| مسار أرشيف = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20150613213129/http://behavenet.com/substance-dependence
** أفيونات طبيعية [[مورفين]] و [[كودين]]
| تاريخ أرشيف = 13 June 2015
** أفيونات نصف مصنعة مثل [[هيروين]]
| وصلة مكسورة = no
** أفيونات مصنعة مثل [[فينتانيل]] Fentanyl
| تاريخ الوصول = 12 June 2015
* [[عقاقير هلوسة]] Hallucinogens
}}</ref>
** [[إل إس دي]]


== انظر أيضا ==
== انظر أيضا ==
{{فهرس إدمان}}
* [[إعادة التأهيل من المخدرات]]
* [[علاج الادمان]]
* [[تداوي ذاتي]]
* [[اعتماد جسدي]]
* [[علاج ادمان المخدرات]]
* [[مضاعفات الحمل]]
* [[النموذج المرضي للإدمان]]
* [[تعاطي المخدرات]]
* [[شخصية إدمانية]]


== مراجع وملاحظات==
{{تصنيف كومنز|Substance dependence}}

== مراجع ==
{{مراجع}}
{{مراجع}}

{{إدمان}}
== وصلات خارجية ==
{{وجع}}

{{بذرة طب}}
* [http://www.asam.org/ موقع جمعية طب الإدمان الأمريكية]
* [http://om911.com/the-ukraine-sex-drug-addiction-poverty-and-aids-in-2011.html الأشخاص، مدمنو المخدرات]
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/drugs/buyers/socialhistory.html تاريخ اجتماعي لأشهر مخدرات أمريكا]
* [http://ec.europa.eu/health-eu/my_lifestyle/drugs/index_en.htm Health-EU Portal – Drugs]
* National Institute on Drug Abuse: "[http://teens.drugabuse.gov/drug-facts/brain-and-addiction NIDA for Teens: Brain and Addiction العقل والإدمان]".
* {{مرجع ويب
| مسار = http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/fr/d/Js4896e/9.html
| عنوان = WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence – WHO Technical Report Series, No. 915 – Thirty-third Report
| تاريخ = 2003
| موقع = apps.who.int
| تاريخ الوصول = 26 February 2015
}} - [http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/pdf/s4896e/s4896e.pdf pdf]
* [http://jari.podbean.com/2013/01/14/trips-beyond-addiction-special-program-for-living-hero-w-jari-chevalier-radio-show-at-wgdrorg/ Trips Beyond Addiction] | Living Hero Radio Show and Podcast special. With Dimitri Mobengo Mugianis, Bovenga Na Muduma, Clare S. Wilkins, Brad Burge, Tom Kingsley Brown, Susan Thesenga, Bruce K. Alexander, PhD ~ the voices of ex-addicts, researchers from The Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies and Ibogaine/Iboga/Ayahuasca treatment providers sharing their experiences in breaking addiction with native medicines. January 2013

<div class="cx-template-editor-source-container" lang="en" dir="ltr" style="display: none;"><div class="cx-template-editor-source"><div class="cx-template-editor-title" title="Formats a citation to a website using the provided information such as URL and title. Used only for sources that are not correctly described by the specific citation templates for books, journals, news sources, etc.">Cite web</div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="url" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">URL</span><span data-key="url" title="The URL of the online location where the text of the publication can be found. Requires schemes of the type "http://..." or maybe even the  protocol relative scheme "//..."" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="url" style="position: relative;"><nowiki>http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/fr/d/Js4896e/9.html</nowiki></div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="title" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Title</span><span data-key="title" title="The title of the source page on the website; will display with quotation marks added. Usually found at the top of you web browser. Not the name of the website." class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="title" style="position: relative;">WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence – WHO Technical Report Series, No. 915 – Thirty-third Report</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="date" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Source date</span><span data-key="date" title="Full date when the source was published; if unknown, use access-date instead; do not wikilink" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="date" style="position: relative;">2003</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="website" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">Website</span><span data-key="website" title="Name of the website; may be wikilinked; will display in italics. Having both 'Publisher' and 'Website' is redundant in most cases" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="website" style="position: relative;">apps.who.int</div></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param"><div class="cx-template-editor-param-title"><span id="access-date" class="cx-template-editor-param-key">URL access date</span><span data-key="access-date" title="The full date when the original URL was accessed; do not wikilink" class="cx-template-editor-param-desc"></span></div><div class="cx-template-editor-param-value" data-key="access-date" style="position: relative;">26 February 2015</div></div></div></div>
{{تصنيف كومنز|Substance dependence}}
{{إخلاء مسؤولية طبية}}
{{إخلاء مسؤولية طبية}}
{{مصادر طبية}}
{{ضبط استنادي}}
{{شريط بوابات|قانون|طب|صيدلة|علم النفس}}
{{شريط بوابات|القانون|صيدلة|طب|علم النفس}}
{{الاضطرابات العقلية والسلوكية}}
[[تصنيف:اعتماد على المواد|*]]

[[تصنيف:إدمان]]
[[تصنيف:اعتماد على المواد]]
[[تصنيف:تشخيص الأمراض النفسية]]
[[تصنيف:تشخيص الأمراض النفسية]]
[[تصنيف:مخدرات]]

نسخة 18:06، 20 أبريل 2019

الاعتماد على مادة
معلومات عامة
الاختصاص علم نفس
من أنواع إدمان،  واضطراب تعاطي المخدرات،  وقضية اجتماعية،  واعتماد على مادة،  ومرض  تعديل قيمة خاصية (P279) في ويكي بيانات
الإدارة
أدوية
حالات مشابهة اعتماد على مادة،  وإدمان،  واضطراب تعاطي المخدرات[1]  تعديل قيمة خاصية (P1889) في ويكي بيانات
التاريخ
وصفها المصدر الموسوعة السوفيتية الكبرى  [لغات أخرى]‏  تعديل قيمة خاصية (P1343) في ويكي بيانات

الاعتماد على مادة المعروف أيضا باسم الاعتماد على المخدرات هي حالة تكيفية تنتج من تكرار تعاطي مادة أو دواء، مما يؤدي إلى أعراض انسحابية عند التوقف عن الاستخدام.[2][3] بينما الإدمان، وهو مفهوم خاص من الاعتماد على مواد، يعرف بأنه سلوك قهري وخارج عن السيطرة، على الرغم من العواقب السلبية. ΔFosB، عامل النسخ الجيني، من المعروف الآن أنه عنصر حاسم وعامل مشترك في تكوين تقريبا جميع أشكال الإدمان السلوكية والإدمان على المواد،[4][5][6] ولكن ليس الاعتماد.


في الطبعة الرابعة من الدليل التشخيصي والإحصائي للاضطرابات النفسية (DSM-IV)، الاعتماد على مادة يتم تعريفه على أنه إدمان للمخدرات، و يمكن تشخيصه دون حدوث متلازمة الانسحاب.[7] الآن يتم وصف الاعتماد على مادة كالتالي: "عندما يستمر الفرد في استخدام الكحول أو المخدرات الأخرى على الرغم من المشاكل المتعلقة باستخدام المادة، قد يمكن تشخيص الحالة بأنها اعتماد على مادة". الاستخدام القهري والمتكرر قد يؤدي إلى حدوث تحمل لتأثير المادة وأعراض الانسحاب عند انخفاض أو توقف الاستخدام. هذا الموضوع جنبا إلى جنب مع سوء استخدام المواد يعتبرا من اضطرابات تعاطي المواد."[8]

انظر أيضا

فهرس الإدمان والاعتمادية[9][10][11][12]

مراجع وملاحظات

  1. ^ . DOI:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12060782. {{استشهاد ويب}}: الوسيط |title= غير موجود أو فارغ (من ويكي بيانات) (مساعدة) والوسيط |مسار= غير موجود أو فارع (مساعدة)
  2. ^ "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (ط. 2nd). McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009. ص. 364–368. ISBN:9780071481274. The defining feature of addiction is compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. ...
    Addictive drugs are both rewarding and reinforcing. ... Familiar pharmacologic terms such as tolerance, dependence, and sensitization are useful in describing some of the time-dependent processes that underlie addiction. ...
    Dependence is defined as an adaptive state that develops in response to repeated drug administration, and is unmasked during withdrawal, which occurs when drug taking stops. Dependence from long-term drug use may have both a somatic component, manifested by physical symptoms, and an emotional–motivation component, manifested by dysphoria. While physical dependence and withdrawal occur with some drugs of abuse (opiates, ethanol), these phenomena are not useful in the diagnosis of addiction because they do not occur with other drugs of abuse (cocaine, amphetamine) and can occur with many drugs that are not abused (propranolol, clonidine).

    The official diagnosis of drug addiction by the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (2000), which makes distinctions between drug use, abuse, and substance dependence, is flawed. First, diagnosis of drug use versus abuse can be arbitrary and reflect cultural norms, not medical phenomena. Second, the term substance dependence implies that dependence is the primary pharmacologic phenomenon underlying addiction, which is likely not true, as tolerance, sensitization, and learning and memory also play central roles. It is ironic and unfortunate that the Manual avoids use of the term addiction, which provides the best description of the clinical syndrome.
  3. ^ "Substance use disorder". Pubmed Health. National Institutes of Health. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2014-03-31. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-09-12. Drug dependence means that a person needs a drug to function normally. Abruptly stopping the drug leads to withdrawal symptoms. Drug addiction is the compulsive use of a substance, despite its negative or dangerous effects
  4. ^ "Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction". Nat. Rev. Neurosci. ج. 12 ع. 11: 623–637. نوفمبر 2011. DOI:10.1038/nrn3111. PMID:21989194. ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors ... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.
  5. ^ "Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms". J. Psychoactive Drugs. ج. 44 ع. 1: 38–55. 2012. DOI:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112. PMID:22641964. It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.
  6. ^ Olsen CM (ديسمبر 2011). "Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions". Neuropharmacology. ج. 61 ع. 7: 1109–22. DOI:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010. PMID:21459101.
  7. ^ "Diagnostic criteria for Substance Dependence: DSM IV–TR". BehaveNet. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2015-06-12. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2015-06-12.
  8. ^ "Substance Dependence". BehaveNet. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2015-06-13. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2015-06-12.
  9. ^ Malenka RC، Nestler EJ، Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience (ط. 2nd). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ص. 364–375. ISBN:9780071481274.
  10. ^ Nestler EJ (ديسمبر 2013). "Cellular basis of memory for addiction". Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. ج. 15 ع. 4: 431–443. PMC:3898681. PMID:24459410. Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type [nucleus accumbens] neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.41. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
  11. ^ "Glossary of Terms". Mount Sinai School of Medicine. Department of Neuroscience. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2015-02-09.
  12. ^ Volkow ND، Koob GF، McLellan AT (يناير 2016). "Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction". N. Engl. J. Med. ج. 374 ع. 4: 363–371. DOI:10.1056/NEJMra1511480. PMID:26816013. Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
    Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.

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